Daitari Sahoo

Abstract

In the line of research in prehistoric archaeology, the author under the auspices of the Prehistoric Archaeology Branch, Department of Anthropology, Utkal University has recently carried out an intensive exploration in and around Ghantikhal area of Cuttack district in the lower Mahanadi valley, Odisha. The survey in the area has resulted in the discovery of total 11 sites with notable evidences of Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. However, this paper highlights only on the Palaeolithic recoveries of the area in and around Ghantikhal. Altogether, twenty-three Palaeoliths of Acheulian period including different typologies of shaped tools and simple artefacts are collected from the surface survey in the area. From entire collection, a few specimens of Palaeolithic artefacts have also been collected as in situ as embedded with the detritus laterite of the sites. The artefacts collected have been mainly made on medium to coarse grained quartzite of different shades and ferruginous sandstone rocks. Although the quantity of Palaeolithic artefacts in the collection is less, the occurrence of its various typologies indicate that in the dim remote past during the Pleistocene the Lower Palaeolithic population occupied the area.

Keywords: Palaeolithic, intensive-exploration, artefacts, prehistoric, sites, in situ Pleistocene

Introduction

The undivided old Cuttack district on the east coast of Odisha in the mean time has been divided into four newly formed districts as Cuttack, Jajpur, Jagatsinghpur, and Kendrapada. Except Cuttack, the other three were the subdivisions of the undivided district of Cuttack (Behuria 1996: viii). The reorganized district of Cuttack comprising its three old subdivisions of Athagarh, Banki and Cuttack Sadar lies roughly between 84º 58' to 86º 20' Eastern Longitude and 20º 03' to 20º 40’ Northern Latitudes. It covers an area of 3932 sq. km and contains a population of 2341000 i.e. 6.38 % of the state population (District Statistical Handbook, Cuttack 2001: 1-2). The district of Cuttack has derived its name from the principal city and headquarters of the same name, which was once the military cantonment (KATAKA) of the medieval Ganga and Gajapati kings of Odisha (Mahapatra 1986: 1). Geographically, it is surrounded by different districts like Dhenkanal in the north, Angul in the north-west, Jajpur in the north-east, Khurda in the south, Nayagarh in the south-west and Jagatsinghpur in the south-east. It has a hot and humid subtropical monsoon climate. While during the summer, the mercury rises as high as 40º Celsius, during the winter, it dips as low as 10º Celsius. Summer starts at the end of March and lasts till June when the monsoon sets in. Winter starts from November and lasts till January and is characterized by chill winds from the North. From mid January to mid March, the district is pleasant with moderate climate. It receives an average annual rainfall of about 1501.3 mm. The entire district is considerably drained by the mid and lower reaches of the Mahanadi as well as its two major distributaries, the Birupa and the Kathajodi.

Right from the time of V. Ball (1876:202-23), the district of Cuttack has found its place in the prehistoric atlas of India. He had discovered an evidence of kitchen midden on a lateritic slab near Chowduar in the district of Cuttack, which is about 10 km to the east of Ghantikhal the study area. Since 1962 to 2005 spanning four decades, a number of prehistoric sites yielding stone artefacts of Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods have been reported in and around the adjoining regions of the district Cuttack (Mohapatra, 1962; Tripathy and Mohanty,1970:77-92; Sahoo and Tripathy,1988-89:269-273; Ghosh and Ray, 1990-93:92-99; Singh,1988-89:275-281; 2000: 102-113; Basa and Sahoo, 2000:121-140; Sahoo, 2000: 173-200; Sahoo and Dash, 2005-06:29-35).

Mostly prehistoric sites are very much located around the hill slopes, foothills, even on the hilltops of the low flat hills in the district. But in this two decades most of the area around north and north western hilly tracks have been encroached for settlement, industry and quarrying of laterite and other material for roads and buildings. Looking into the steady destruction of the natural landmass having important archaeological records by cultural formation process, the author, between 1996 and 2004 had collected from the adjoining areas a good number prehistoric artefacts dated to the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. Later under the auspices of the Prehistoric Archaeology Branch, the Department of Anthropology, Utkal University has undertaken an intensive survey for imparting training in Filed Prehistoric Archaeology to the final year postgraduate. students, specializing in prehistoric archaeology (Fig-3A). The survey in the area has resulted in the discovery of total 11 sites with significant lithic evidences of Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. The field out materials from this survey are in the Department of Anthropology, Utkal University.

The present paper is an outcome of this intensive exploration carried out in around Ghantikhal area of Gurudijhatia block in Athagarh subdivision of Cuttack district in the lower Mahanadi valley during the field season 2005. This paper deals with the Palaeolithic recoveries from the study area of Ghantikhal.

Area of survey

The investigation primarily was undertaken in an area on the north-north-western peneplains as well as upland region on the north of the river Mahanadi in the district of Cuttack. Geographically the area, selected as the core area of study, is under the Athagarh sub-division around Subasi Reserved Forest and lies between 20º30’00”to 20º34’00” N. latitudes, and 85º43’00”to 85º46'00" E. longitudes (Fig.1). The area is widely known for the Nidhipur-Ghantikhala railway station on the South-Eastern Railway (S.E.R) East coast section and the important hills like Haripuli and Subasi range reserve forest (Fig-2A&B ). It is at about 8 kilometres to the west of the Cuttack city, the headquarters of the district Cuttack, and about 45 kilometres to the north of the state capital, Bhubaneswar. In fact, the survey concentrated in an area between Khuntuni and Nidhipur-Ghantikhala along the sides of the South Eastern Railway: East Coast Section (which runs in the area from Barang to Radhakishorepur). The area on the north is bounded by Khuntuni and Radhakishorepur localities, on the east by Subasi Reserve Forest, on the south by Nidhipur-Ghantikhala localities and on the west by Champia, Dalabhoga, and Subarnamanjaripur localities lying on the western fringe of the Subasi Reserve Forest. The Subasi range is located in the east of the study area orienting east to west. The undulation of this natural landscape is marked due to the distribution of hills and mountains. Geologically, the area contains the rock types occurring from oldest to youngest formations. The oldest formation comprises granite gneisses rock of Pre Cambrian-Achaean formations. The Athagarh sandstones represent rocks of the lower Cretaceous-Jurassic formation comprising the upper Gondwanas. The youngest formations of the quaternary period belonging to the Pleistocene recent and later periods are, respectively, the laterites and alluvial deposits found distributed at surrounding piedmont areas of the hills and atop the hills. In this area, the laterites, detrital in character, are primarily developed on the formations of granite gneisses and sandstones. The Upper Gondwana formations are found in the Haripuli hills. Laterites belong to the Pleistocene formation located close to Radhashyampur and Belasahi-Sahar-Sahi as well as around foothills of the Subasi range (Fig-3B). At places, cobbles, pebbles, and split pebbles of quartz, quartzite, block and nodules of ferruginous sandstones found distributed either over the Gondwana sandstone and laterite outcrops embedded or in loose context. There are many seasonal and perennial mountain streams, which have considerably drained the landmass.

Figure-1: Map of the Study Area of Ghantikhala, Cuttack, District.

Among them Barajora on the northwest and the Sankhajor on the south of the study area are the important perennial streams. The Barajora forms an affluent of the river Sapua, a left bank tributary of the Mahanadi. The annual rainfall of the area is moderate. Besides that, the environment of the area is graced with numerous fauna and floras as well as seasonal and perennial water bodies.

However, the study area spreads across the villages inhabited by caste and tribal people. The Savara are the major tribe living in the surrounding villages like Behentasaharshai, Belasahi-Sahar-Sahi, Nuasahi, Champia, Rampei, Subarnamanjaripur, Chepeti Sahi etc. They are very much depending on the flora and fauna available in the reserved forest region of Subasi hills and water resources nearby for their livelihood. It is apparent that the geomorphology of the area along with its favourable environment laden with sustainable resources and easy accessibility has attracted the prehistoric population to occupy the area in the past as well as the present population.

Location of Prehistoric sites

From the survey in and around the study area, a number of sites associated with Stone Age artefacts of lower Palaeolithic period have been discovered. Hence, a precise site description regarding the content and context of the early human adaptation and their artefactual evidence is as follows.

1. Ghantikhal (GKL): 20º 30' 50" N.latitude, 85º 44' 15" E.longitude. Site No. 1

It is located on the west of the South Eastern Railway (East Coast Section), which leads from Barang through Ghantikhal-Nidhipur railway station to Radhakishorepur in the study area. There is a vast patch of highly eroded land measuring about (180x80) sq. m parallel to the said railway track (Fig-2B). The land is eroded up to the lateritic deposit because of heavy earth quarrying for various purposes. The lateritic exposure is found distributed with angular knobs or nodules of weathered sandstones of different shape and sizes. Lateritic nodules of different sizes are also found strewn in the site. The Palaeolithic artefacts of various types are noticed as in situ and loose in the site. From this site, a good number of Palaeolithic artefacts have been collected as representative samples (Fig-4; 5-A&B-) and Fig-6: Top left: 1, Top right: 3; Bottom left: 6, Bottom middle: 7).. Altogether eight numbers of Palaeolithic artefacts including 01 core hand axe, 01 chopping tool, 04 scrapers, 01 intermediate tool, and 01 flake have been collected from the site. A quaternary section exposed up to the level of lateritic conglomerate on the western boundary in the site has been studied and recorded during the survey. This exposed lateritic conglomerate bed at the bottom of the said section is an implementiferous layer from which the above said Palaeolithic artefacts have been yielded as in situ and loose in context.

2. Subarnamanjaripur (SMP):20º 30' 40"N.latitude, 85º 43' 15"E.longitude, Site No 3.

It is located about 1 km. to the north of the Ghantikhal-Kantol road that runs from Ghantikhal-Nidhipur through Subarnamanjaripur to Athagarh and about 500m to the northeast of the village Subarnamanjaripur. In fact, it is situated at the north-eastern part of the Subarnamanjaripur minor irrigation project and very close to the boundary wall of Arati Steel Plant in the area. Because of heavy earth quarrying for a M.I.P in the site, secondary laterite bed is exposed. The exposed detrital laterite bed in the site has yielded a few important Palaeolithic tools as in situ context. Altogether nine (09) Palaeolithic artefacts comprising 03 hammers, 01 chopper, 01 hand axe (unfinished), 02 scrapers, and 02 flakes have collected from the site.

3. Cherua (CER): 20º 31' 40" N. latitude, 85º 44' 55" E. longitude, Site No. 7.

The site Cherua is located on the left of the Southern Eastern Railway (East Coast Section) which runs from Ghantikhala to Radhakishorepur in the study area. It is situated about 500 metres to the east of Belasahi-Sahara-Sahi and very close to the Railway passage No. 12 before a cutting with tunnel of rail track on the south-western margin of the Subasi hill range. The site has yielded only two representative samples of the prehistoric artefacts of two different cultural periods. Among these, one is the Palaeolithic artefact identified as a cleaver on a thick flake of light yellowish quartzite and the other one is a half broken ring-stone on basalt of Neolithic period.

4. Belasahi-Sahara-Sahi (BSS): 20º 31'40"N. latitude, 85º 44'55"E.longitude Site No.9.

Belasahi-Sahara-Sahi is a hamlet of Ghantikhala village inhabited by Savara tribes. It is located on the south to south-eastern foothills of the Haripuli (Haribolei) hill (Fig-3A). A road leading from Ghantikhala to Khuntuni dissects the area. The site of prehistoric importance is located on the west of the Ghantikhala-Khuntuni road. A mountain stream locally known as Kiajhor Nala is flowing on the south of the site. The site on the north and northwest is bounded by dense mixed jungle of the Subasi Reserve Forest. To the northwest of the site, there is a little raised space of land close to the site, which has yielded a few Neolithic artefacts. Besides that, a patch of land having high erosion in the site is marked close to the left of Ghantikhala-Khuntuni road. It has exposed up to the level of lateritic conglomerate and a layer of loose lateritic deposit of about 25cm to 30cm in thickness rests over this compact lateritic conglomerate exposure. A thin layer approximately of 20cm to25cm deposit composed of light brown soil mixed with quartz pellets and containing microlithic artefacts overlies the loose laterite level. Atop this implementiferous layer of microliths there is a deposit composed of dark brown silty clay soil, which forms the present surface in the site. The surface survey in the site has yielded only 05 lower Palaeolithic artefacts including 01 bifacial chopper, 03 scrapers and 01 knife from the detrital lateritic bed exposed due to heavy erosion of upper level deposits in due course of time.

Recovery of Palaeolithic Artefacts

From the surface survey altogether 23 representative specimens of cruder artefacts made on pebbles and flakes of quartz and quartzite, lumps and flakes of ferruginous sandstone belong to the Palaeolithic Acheulian period have been collected from the four sites around the study area. Out of these, 08 (34.78%) are from Ghantikhal, 09 (39.13%) from Subarnamanjaripur, 01 (04.34%) from Cherua and the rest 05 (21.73%) from Belasahi-Saharasahi. However, the recoveries are less in number the varied typologies in the collection exhibits the presence the lower Palaeolithic culture in the study area fringing to the western border of coastal plains of Cuttack. Typo technological point of view the entire collection divided into two categories such as Shaped Artefacts (16: 69.56 %) and Simple Artefacts (07: 30.43 %). In the collection the shaped artefacts includes the five shaped tool types such as unifacial chopper 01: 4.54 %, bifacial chopper 02:9.09 %, hand axe 02:9.09 %, cleaver 01:4.54 %, scraper 09:40.90 % and knife 01: 04.34; the simple artefacts comprises the two types of artefacts like flake 04:18.18 %, hammer 03:13.63 % (Table-1).

Table-1:

Site and Type wise Recoveries of Lower Palaeolithic Artefacts around Ghantikhala.

The Palaeolithic artefacts of various types are collected as in situ, embedded with the detritus laterite, and loose in the disturbed context at sites. From the site of Ghantikhala, a good number of representative samples of Palaeolithic artefacts such as a core hand axe (GKL-1: 12.7x8.1x5.4 Cm.) made of a lump of ferruginous sandstone (Fig-:4) and a side scraper (GKL-8: 7.0x6.3x3.2Cm.) made of a thick flake of quartzite (Fig-:5A) have been collected by means of chiselling out from the lateritic deposit. Simple artefacts such as flakes and hammers come from only two sites: Ghantikhala and Subarnamanjaripur. While the site Ghantikhala yielded, only 02 flakes of ferruginous sandstone, the site of Subarnamanjaripur reported the occurrence of only 02 flakes of quartzite and 03 hammers on quartzite pebbles. No fossils or skeletal remains have collected from the sites of the survey area.

Stratigraphy

During the survey, no such stratigraphic section is recorded having lower Palaeolithic evidences form the seasonal and perennial mountain streams in the area. With a view to reconstructing a possible geochronology of the quaternary deposits and for understanding of the stratigraphic context of the lower Palaeolithic remains on the former, much effort have been made at a quaternary section exposed on the west of south-eastern railway (east coast section) at the site of Ghantikhal near Ghantikhal-Nidhipur railway station. Besides that, two distinct beds of lateritic conglomerates found exposed at two different places: one at the north-eastern part of the Subarnamanjaripur Minor Irrigation Project (M.I.P) in the site of Subarnamanjaripur and the other one in the site Belasahi-Sahara-Sahi on the west of Ghantikhala-Khuntuni road. As all these three sites yielded a number of simple and shaped lower Paleolithic artefacts it was decided to record almost a full phased intact section for the said purposes. However, our field observation on quaternary deposits at the site of Ghantikhal encountered a fivefold stratigraphic section of 283cm in height, which had been exposed up to lateritic conglomerate bed due to earth quarrying. From the top to bottom, the entire height of the section represented a deposit of 10cm-12cm humus of light brown fine clay mixed with sand and silt. Over this layer, there are a few living thorny plants developed. Below the humus layer, layer-II is of 145cm-148cm thick and composed of dark brown silty-clay soil associated with some living and dried out roots and root lets of plants. The deposit of layer-III, below the layer-II is of 37cm- 42 cm thick and composed of light brown soil mixed with quartz pellets of fine variety. The layer-IV is of 73cm-78cm in thickness and composed of loose lateritic soil with ferricrite granules. In a slopping manner, the layer-IV meets the layer-V the lower most exposed stratum which is found developed over the country rock of the Pre Cambrian-Achaean formation in the study area. The layer- IV is composed of lateritic conglomerate, detrital in character. This exposed lateritic conglomerate bed at the site of Ghantikhal is an implementiferous layer of the above said Palaeolithic artefacts.

However, the implementiferous horizon of Palaeolithic artefacts has been precisely determined as the lateritic conglomerates as found at different places in the three different sites like Ghantikhal, Subarnamanjaripur, and Belasahi-Sahar-Sahi in the in the study area. From these sites, Palaeolithic artefacts have been collected as insitu and in loose context from the eroded lateritic conglomerates developed over the gneisses bed of the Pre Cambrian-Achaean era. A composite stratigraphy and the Lower Palaeolithic horizon of the study area are presented with a not to scale schematic view as below (Fig.-7).

Raw materials and Technology

Lower Palaeolithic Acheulian assemblages recovered from the study area generally made on quartzite and ferruginous sandstones. These are the only suitable raw materials as earlier mentioned available in the natural outcrops in the area. Acheulian people for manufacturing their tool types selected suitable sizes of pebbles, split pebbles of quartzite and lumps or nodules of ferruginous sandstones obtained from natural outcrops. The quartzite utilised for production of various implements and other artefacts are medium to fine grained in texture and found in different shades ranging from brown to pink, and grey. The ferruginous sandstones also utilised for the Palaeolithic industry in the area are coarse to fined grained in texture and occur in brown and dark brown in colours. While occurrences of quartz and quartzite pebbles are marked distributed on the upper Gondwana formations of Megha Hills, the ferruginous sandstone occurred as intrusive and exposed at many places on low flat hills in and around the Subasi Reserve Forest.

The careful observation of artefact assemblages found from the area reveals that Palaeoliths have made by flaking technique. Some of the tools like choppers were shaped by hammer stone technique. Hand axes are mainly on both cores and flakes. The type tools are bifacially worked and possessed small and shallow flake scars around their margins, which indicate the use of cylinder-hammer technique. Reminiscences of deep flake scars stepped in nature on hand axes also indicate the application of stone hammer technique.

Typo-technologically, the choppers from the study area are made on quartzite pebbles. They are classified into two types: unifacial chopper and bifacial choppers. Accordingly their broad working edges are made by removing minimum flakes from one of the sides and both the sides of the pebble blanks. The two hand axes in the collection are oval in their general shapes, one is suitably made on an oval and flat pebble of quartzite and the other one is made into an ovate on a ferruginous sandstone lump by mass reduction processes involving the applications of stone hammer or hollow hammer techniques. Only one ‘V’ shaped cleaver (CER-1:13.1x12.3x5.5Cm.) on a massive flake of quartzite recovered from the area reveals its crudeness and fashioned by means of soft hammer technique (Fig-6, Middle left: 4). It has a broad, straight and sharp working end transverse to its narrow and thick butt which developed by removal of small and thin flakes more at its obverse and a few on the reverse as required. Almost all scrapers in the collection made on large and thick pebble flakes and prepared flakes after trimming their sides, ends or around the periphery. The scrapers made on prepared flakes suggest the application of prepared core (Levalloisian) technique. A specimen of round scraper (GKL-3:10.5x8.7x2.3Cm.) which is a flake with shallow scars of previous flakes removed in centripetal manner on its obverse and a flat surface on the reverse strengthens this view that it is shaped prior to its dislodgement from the mother lump or nodule - the nucleus (Fig-6,Bottom left:6). Subsequently, this prepared flake is shaped into such a scarper type by means of cylinder hammer technique removing small flakes – as a secondary working around its periphery. In the lower Palaeolithic industry in this area, however, flakes of different types had played a greater role in the manufacturing of scrapers with controlled flaking as well as little retouches. A knife from the site of Belasahi-Sahara-Sahi is found designed on an elongated flake of quartzite.The simple artefacts have been yielded from the survey are flakes and hammers. The flakes are mostly secondary flakes of ferruginous sandstone with prominent bulb of percussion at the lower surface and the scars of previous flakes removed on the upper surfaces. So far, the flakes are concerned there are both side and end flakes with scars of previous flakes removed from their upper surfaces. Most of the flakes in the collection are Levalloisian in character. The typologies of flakes and the patterns of flake scars on various tool types indicate that free flaking, controlled flaking, and secondary flaking methods were usually employed to manufacture different type tools on core and flakes. The stone hammers are very much on quartzite pebbles and characterised by possession of battering marks on both of their shorter ends and some cases both at shorter and broader ends.

Summary and Conclusion

An attempt has been made in this work to present discoveries of Palaeolithic artefacts from surface survey around Ghantikhal area located near the delta head of the river Mahanadi in the district of Cuttack. The prime objective of the present study was to find out new palaeo-sites and evidences of palaeo-human activities in the study area discussed earlier. The survey has brought to light the existence of a Palaeolithic culture in the area. The palaeo-sites in the study area have yielded the evidences of the culture in the form of lithic artefacts, which were being made and used by the palaeo-people who had occupied the area during remote past. No fossils or skeletal remains have so far been collected associated with the artefact assemblages from the survey, therefore an estimation of culture chronology of these antiquities is obviously done based on typo-technology of the artefact assemblages in the collection.

Typo technological study of the field out materials confirmed a lower Palaeolithic culture. The Palaeolithic from the study area indicates that the Mahanadi in its lower course witnessed scraper dominated cultural phase of Palaeolithic period though unifacial and bifacial choppers, hand axes, cleaver and knife formed the entire assemblage. This is a marked feature worldwide that obtained in late Acheulian to middle Palaeolithic period. Smallness in size of choppers and hand axes, occurrence of different types of scrapers made on different types of flakes by execution of edge retouch in the collection strengthens the above presumption and confirms the existence of a lower Palaeolithic late Acheulian culture in the study area. The careful observation and analysis of the flakes and flake scars on the shaped tools reveal that the tools are chiefly fashioned by stone hammer as well as cylinder hammer techniques that represent the late Acheulian tradition of lower Palaeolithic period. Both the shaped tools and the simple artefacts are made chiefly on ferruginous sandstone and followed by quartzite materials. They are mostly yielded from the surface survey in association with exposed laterite levels either loose or in situ state. In this connection Ghosh (1966: 149-62, 1979:120-124) and Mohapatra, (1962:12-13) highly reported that both the laterites and alluvial deposits are found to be implementiferous, associated with Palaeolithic tools, the earliest remains of prehistoric men in different parts of India. But the tools found from the gravelly lateritic deposits are also being lateritised and are provided with lateritic encrustations.

Retrievals of these lithic remains associated with detritus laterite conglomerates and at places found embedded within such expositions aptly suggest that the culture as belonging to early Pleistocene to middle Pleistocene, which is the most significant geoarchaeological feature in the lower Palaeolithic culture in eastern India. Moreover, some artefacts in the collection which have been found embedded in the laterite layer possessed with lateritic encrustations in their body perhaps due to long contact with lateritic deposit in the study area. It has also been observed that lower Palaeolithic occupation had taken its place on the lateritic surface and the other successive deposits found developed over this lateritic surface have concealed the same with terminal Pleistocene formation and later by Holocene warm and wet climatic cycles.

A

B
Figure-2(A&B): Partial views of the study area at Ghantikhala

Figure-3A: Students in Field training at the site Belasahi-Sahara-Sahi, Ghantikhala.

Figure-3B: Laterite bed, the Lower Palaeolithic horizon rests over the Pre Cambrian Achaean Formation on southern foot plains of Subasi hills.

Figure -4: A hand axe found as in situ form Ghantikhala site

Figure -5A:A Round scraper

Figure -5B: A side scraper found as in situ from Ghantikhala site.

Lower Palaeolithic Shaped artefacts from Ghantikhala Area.

From left to right: Top: 1&2- hand axes, 3- a chopper.
Middle left: 4-a cleaver; Middle right: 5- a chopper
Bottom left: 6- a around scraper;

Acknowledgement

The author would like to express his sincere gratitude to Professor J. Dash, the then Head, and Professor P.K. Das, Co-ordinator U.G.C-D.A.S, Department of Anthropology, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar for their necessary permission and financial grant to undertake the field survey and preparation of this work.

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Senior Lecturer in Anthropology P.G.Department of Anthropology Utkal University, Vani Vihar Bhubaneswar - 751004.
This paper is presented in the 99^th Indian Science Congress Section of Anthropological and Behavioral Sciences, 2012 at Bhubaneswar.